The secret key is then, byte by byte, cycling the key if necessary, XORed with all the P-entries in order. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. It takes a variable-length key, from 32 bits to 448 bits, making it ideal for both domestic and exportable use. CBC mode needs an Initialization Vector (IV) that has the same length as the block size, the full plaintext is the actual message including padding (PKCS#5 padding in, Read the IV before creating the decryptor, Remove padding after decryption by looking at the last byte, evaluate that as an integer and remove as many bytes from the end of the plaintext. salt A salt string to base the hashing on. 2. Most credible encryption algorithms are published and freely available for analysis, because it's the security of the key that actually makes the algorithm secure. How does Key Management work? Blowfish's flexible key length is arguably a disadvantage, since it's an invitation to use a passphrase or other non-random secret directly as a key. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. How To Handle Breached Certificate and Key? What are the services provided by Microsoft Azure? Which is better for data security? stream mode. Are you sure the two keys are not known to you? It is for a Ruby coding exercise and honestly, I can't find any library in Ruby or any gems that decrypts aes256 & blowfish encryption without and given key. It supports various Algorithms such as Arcfour,Blowfish,Blowfish-compat,Cast-128,Cast-256,Des,Gost,Loki97,Rc2,Rijndael-128,Rijndael-192,Rijndael-256,Saferplus,Serpent,Tripledes,Twofish,Xtea. Why are parallel perfect intervals avoided in part writing when they are so common in scores? How do I trim a clip in Avid Media Composer? If you don't specify a key with permitted length the key is prolonged with rev2023.4.17.43393. This code and the algorithm are in the0 public domain. It uses a variable size key, but typically, 128 bit (16 byte) keys are considered good for strong encryption. should be interpreted as a plain text or a hexadecimal value. view) keys for both encryption and decryption of a message. Other uncategorized cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. By clicking Accept all cookies, you agree Stack Exchange can store cookies on your device and disclose information in accordance with our Cookie Policy. . The stream ciphers hold and change What is the purpose of the NIST? Algorithms supported: Cast-128, Gost, Rijndael-128, Twofish, Arcfour, Cast-256, Loki97, On the Disadvantage side, it takes a very long time to do, The small block size of Blowfish means that Birthday Attacks can occur and compromise the encryption algorithm, It is followed by Twofish, which was created to replace Blowfish, as it is better in most ways. Encryption: WPA2/WPA3-Enterprise; UW MPSK. Unless there is a flaw in the algorithm and that you know it, your only option is to brute force it which might takes hundred of years. What does CSP stand for? the secret key used for the encryption and required for the decryption of its The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. Sometimes an encryption algorithm is restricted, meaning that the algorithm itself is kept secret. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. to eql (original) end it 'encodes and decodes strings' do original = 'my string' encrypted . What is an Object Identifier (OID) in PKI? Browse other questions tagged, Where developers & technologists share private knowledge with coworkers, Reach developers & technologists worldwide, I removed your second part of your question, because it is simply too broad. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. I am using a 23 character password (case-sensitive alphanumeric random). This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. What is an Extended Validation (EV) Certificate? This continues, replacing the entire P-array and all the S-box entries. When did Bruce Schneier create the Blowfish algorithm? This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. The online Blowfish encryption and decryption tool provides online Blowfish encryption and decryption test. Advanced Encryption Standard . It's fast, free and has been analyzed considerably. Destination newline separator. Stack Exchange network consists of 181 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow, the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. Initialization vector is always a sequence of bytes, each byte 3. In the block mode, the cryptographic algorithm splits the input message into an You can decrypt a file online without a key if you have the right tool. Can we create two different filesystems on a single partition? Browse other questions tagged, Start here for a quick overview of the site, Detailed answers to any questions you might have, Discuss the workings and policies of this site. them Daily Credits. At the time Blowfish was released, many other designs were proprietary, encumbered by patents, or were commercial or government secrets. Blowfish block cipher cryptomatic algorithm Padding : Select whether to padding and how to pad the data blocks. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. SSL, TLS Certificate Management? I am quite new to encryption and recently played around with blowfish (openssl's implemenation). Our PDAs store personal e-mail and contact lists; GPS receivers and, soon, cell phones keep logs of our movements;[1] and our automobiles record our driving habits. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Blowfish, another symmetric key encryption algorithm, could use any key with size up to 448 bits, although 128-bit keys are used most often. Introduction to Blowfish Blowfish is a keyed, symmetric cryptographic block cipher designed by Bruce Schneier in 1993 and placed in the public domain. The encryption and decryption supports five encryption modes: CBC, CFB, OFB, CTR and ECB, and the input and output supports three formats: hex, string and base64. initialization value of the additional variable is called the If a people can travel space via artificial wormholes, would that necessitate the existence of time travel? You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. 4. Blowfish is a symmetric-key block cipher that encrypts data in 64-bit blocks. Will using a 32 character key for Blowfish make it a 32 bit encryption? Read the keyscheduling code @forest he's not talking about bcrypt, which would give different outputs, but the classic encryption algorithm. It demonstrates state of the art of cryptology techniques, such as password hashing and salt. If someone would acquire my encrypted text, how long would it take him/her to bruteforce it? Since that time it has never been cracked, in spite of numerous attempts. The left 32 bits are XORed with the first element of a P-array to create a value I'll call P', run through a transformation function called F, then XORed with the right 32 bits of the message to produce a new value I'll call F'. Is there a way to decrypt an encoded string without a key in Ruby? A 64-bit all-zero block is then encrypted with the algorithm as it stands. Blowfish is currently one of the faster block ciphers. By clicking Accept, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. By using the website, you agree with it. conversion of input and output format. The test vectors for verifying third-party implementations were also produced with 576-bit keys. Like a password, you have to keep the key secret from everyone except the sender and receiver of the message. IV : Initialize vector IV, which is not supported in ECB mode. The key is divided up into 32-bit blocks and XORed with the initial elements of the P and S arrays. What is PKI? These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. Unexpected results of `texdef` with command defined in "book.cls". By clicking Accept all cookies, you agree Stack Exchange can store cookies on your device and disclose information in accordance with our Cookie Policy. Encrypts a string using various algorithms (e.g. The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output. Times China, EE What does Canada immigration officer mean by "I'm not satisfied that you will leave Canada based on your purpose of visit"? Read the IV before creating the decryptor. What is the Certificate Signing Request (CSR)? In theory, this means it's not crackable in our lifetime. I overpaid the IRS. 1101 Pacific Ave 2nd Fl. For Here's the problem, a string has been passed through three separate encryptions in the following order: Original -> Base64 -> AES-256 -> Blowfish (Keyless) -> Final. Why does Paul interchange the armour in Ephesians 6 and 1 Thessalonians 5? This website uses cookies. Finally, we don't know if the secret is being concatenated with a salt before being hashed. 12 gauge wire for AC cooling unit that has as 30amp startup but runs on less than 10amp pull, Process of finding limits for multivariable functions, Existence of rational points on generalized Fermat quintics. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. Your "Test" example also illustrates this. Content Discovery initiative 4/13 update: Related questions using a Machine How to convert a string to lower or upper case in Ruby, Strange \n in base64 encoded string in Ruby. It is also fast and efficient in both software and hardware, and it has a simple structure that lends itself well to various optimizations. 2023 Encryption Consulting LLC. Learn more about Stack Overflow the company, and our products. The online Blowfish encryption and decryption tool provides online Blowfish encryption and decryption test. Twofish fixed this issue, by implementing a block with a size of 128. [2] On top of that, users demand products that can be reprogrammed during normal use, enabling them to eliminate bugs and add new features as firmware upgrades become available. Symmetric ciphers use the same (or very similar from the algorithmic point of The results are written back into the array. Sometimes you want data integrity, the assurance that the recipient received the same message you sent. Xr = Xr ^ ctx->P[N];Xl = Xl ^ ctx->P[N + 1]; void Blowfish_Decrypt(BLOWFISH_CTX *ctx, uint32_t *xl, uint32_t *xr) {uint32_t Xl;uint32_t Xr;uint32_t temp;intii; for (i = N + 1; i > 1; i) {Xl = Xl ^ ctx->P[i];Xr = F(ctx, Xl) ^ Xr; Xr = Xr ^ ctx->P[1];Xl = Xl ^ ctx->P[0]; void Blowfish_Init(BLOWFISH_CTX *ctx, uint16_t *key, int KeyLen) {uint32_t Xl;{int i, j, k;uint32_t data, datal, datar; for (i = 0; i < 4;="" i++)="">{for (j = 0; j < 256;="" j++)="" ctx-="">S[i][j] = ORIG_S[i][j];}, j = 0;for (i = 0; i < n="" +="" 2;="" ++i)="">{data = 0x00000000;for (k = 0; k < 4;="" ++k)="">{data = (data < 8)="" |="">j = j + 1;if (j >= keyLen) j = 0;}ctx->P[i] = ORIG_P[i] ^ data;}. What block mode of operation does it use? Which is better for data security? The public key is used to encrypt the data, and the private key is used to decrypt the data. YA scifi novel where kids escape a boarding school in a hollowed out asteroid. Be sure you know what a library does before using it. Iterating over dictionaries using 'for' loops, How to iterate over rows in a DataFrame in Pandas. Decryption Encrypted Text Decrypted Text In cryptography, encryption is the process of transforming information (referred to as plaintext) using an algorithm (called cipher) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key. Can SSL using Blowfish cipher be considered strong enough? Not an actual log per se, but so-called ephemerides information that allows the device to find GPS transmitters without doing a time-consuming search of the entire GPS spectrum. In 2016, the SWEET32 attack demonstrated how to leverage birthday attacks to perform plaintext recovery (i.e. Why does a base64 encoded string have an = sign at the end, How to check whether a string contains a substring in Ruby, AES256-CBC Ciphertext from BouncyCastle decrypts in BC, but PHP openssl_decrypt fails w/same inputs. AES's 128-bit block size) makes it vulnerable to birthday attacks, particularly in contexts like HTTPS. Write a method that takes this triple encoded string mystery_string = "OXbVgH7UriGqmRZcqOXUOvJt8Q4JKn5MwD1XP8bg9yHwhssYAKfWE+AMpr25HruA" and fully unencrypts it to its original state. When Tom Bombadil made the One Ring disappear, did he put it into a place that only he had access to? Blowfish encryption is replaced by a secure certificate-based encryption mechanism. Why PHP password_hash does use blowfish intstead threefish? Mark's answer is also fairly accurate, smaller keys equals easier cracking time, and with larger keys it is almost impossible to brute-force. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. What is a Self-Signed Certificate? How can I make the following table quickly? What is the use of Cloud Service Provider? Once IP address account spends credits from its Wallet, it can not be charged again. What is the Average Total Cost of a Data Breach? How is Encryption and Decryption done in an SQL Server? What screws can be used with Aluminum windows? No, not with the current hardware if a good encryption method was used and the key (password) was long enough. He's the creator of the gdbstubs library, a free collection of embeddable stubs for the GNU debugger. Generally speaking, encryption algorithms come in two flavors, symmetric and public key. Because of this capability, GPS receivers are routinely collected and analyzed during searches by law enforcement. How would yout answer differ if it were a big player (three letter agencies). Create a cipher using the new () method in the blowfish module that new generates a key to encrypt and decrypt data. The various modes of operation for the AES256 cipher function requires either a 32-byte (or sometimes a 64-byte) key. Terminology In cryptographic circles, plaintext is the message you're trying to transmit. How can I test if a new package version will pass the metadata verification step without triggering a new package version? And as far as your edit goes: modes of operation. MathJax reference. Out-Format : The output format of the encrypted result or decrypted original content. Blowfish was designed in 1993 by Bruce Schneier as a fast, free alternative to existing encryption algorithms. While some of this is true, straightforward public domain techniques that are both robust and lightweight do exist. How encryption can be used to protect data throughout its lifecycle (data-at-rest, data-in-transit, data-in-use). Hashing are mathematical one-way functions, meaning there is no* way to reverse the output string to get the input string. Blowfish has known key-weaknesses that can lead to the discovery of your plaintext if you happen to pick a vulnerable key. symmetric encryption algorithms We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. Use the encrypt () method to encrypt the data. However, key derivation functions require multiple parameters, and we would need to know what parameters to enter along with our secret to get the right encryption key. What is Key Management? A lighter-weight approach to firmware exchange with an embedded system would be to encrypt the image with Blowfish, instead of RSA. How to encrypt string using Blowfish in PHP? Get driving directions. public static function decrypt ($crypttext,$key) { if ( !function_exists ('mcrypt_module_open') ) trigger_error ('The blowfish encryption class requires the Mcrypt library to be compiled into PHP.'); $plaintext = ''; $td = mcrypt_module_open ('blowfish', '', 'cfb', ''); $blocksize = mcrypt_enc_get_block_size ($td); $iv = substr ($crypttext, 0, My question would be: Advisor, EE Times What are Plaintext and Ciphertext? asymmetric ciphers. Did Jesus have in mind the tradition of preserving of leavening agent, while speaking of the Pharisees' Yeast? Or they "pad" a string like 'Test' to 16 . In-Format : The format of input content can be string, hexadecimal string and This benefit has contributed to its popularity in cryptographic software. Blowfish is the first symmetric encryption algorithm created by Bruce Schneier in 1993. Effective in version 10.4, support for Blowfish encryption is deprecated. How to determine chain length on a Brompton? RFC 2451 shows that Blowfish uses key sizes from 40 to 448 bits. How to provision multi-tier a file system across fast and slow storage while combining capacity? Encode "blowfish" to Base64 format. How to determine chain length on a Brompton? The sensitive data and the symmetric encryption key are utilized within the encryption algorithm to turn the sensitive data into ciphertext. It was designed by Bruce Schneier and more details about it can be found at < https://www.schneier.com/blowfish.html >. The key used for encryption, the public key need not be kept secret. Is the problem just a Ruby coding exercise or are you taking a course on encryption algorithms? Withdrawing a paper after acceptance modulo revisions? be easily computable and able to process even large messages in real time. It has a 8-byte block size and supports a variable-length key, from 4 to 56 bytes. Is this normal behavior of the algorithm or is it a bug? How is it different from HTTP? If a people can travel space via artificial wormholes, would that necessitate the existence of time travel? It uses a variable-length key, from 32 bits to 448 bits, making it suitable for both domestic and exportable use. Return Values bcrypt is also the name of a cross-platform file encryption utility developed in 2002 that implements Blowfish. Use Raster Layer as a Mask over a polygon in QGIS, How small stars help with planet formation, New Home Construction Electrical Schematic. Thanks. Another good encryption library is rb-NaCl. Code: from Crypto.Cipher import Blowfish from struct import pack bs = Blowfish.block_size key = b'An arbitrarily long key' ciphertext = b . A digital signature would authenticate the ephimeride, verifying that it hadn't been tampered with or rendered invalid before being used as evidence. Decryption is exactly the same as encryption, except that P1, P2, , P18 are used in the reverse order. Blowfish, DES, TripleDES, Enigma). Advantages, Disadvantages & Risks. The maximal size of the the text string input is 131,072 characters. Spellcaster Dragons Casting with legendary actions? Secure data transmissions prevent contact lists and personal e-mail from being read by someone other than the intended recipient, keep firmware upgrades out of devices they don't belong in, and verify that the sender of a piece of information is who he says he is. process and combined with the content of every block. Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience. has to be represented in hexadecimal form. The same ciphertext is then encrypted again with the new subkeys, and the new ciphertext replaces P3 and P4. Should the alternative hypothesis always be the research hypothesis? How do I execute a program or call a system command? Yes, I got the same. I am reviewing a very bad paper - do I have to be nice? A graphical representation of F appears in Figure 2. You might also like the online encrypt tool . With the help of this public-domain encryption algorithm, we can clean up our act. Blowfish is a widely used symmetric encryption algorithm. bcrypt is a password hashing function which, combined with a variable number of iterations (work "cost"), exploits the expensive key setup phase of Blowfish to increase the workload and duration of hash calculations, further reducing threats from brute force attacks. Accounts of registered users have higher Daily Credits amounts and can even increase them by purchasing subscriptions. Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers. You still may change the IV. This constraint is not a problem even for older desktop and laptop computers, though it does prevent use in the smallest embedded systems such as early smartcards. [3], // initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from pi; omitted in the example (you can find them below), /* blowfish key expansion (521 iterations) */, "Cryptanalysis and Design of Iterated Block Ciphers", "Bruce Almighty: Schneier preaches security to Linux faithful", "Description of a New Variable-Length Key, 64-Bit Block Cipher (Blowfish)", "Cryptography: Description of a New Variable-Length Key, 64-Bit Block Cipher (Blowfish)", "bcrypt Free Download - whodunnit.tools.bcrypt", "T2 package - trunk - bcrypt - A utility to encrypt files", "On the Practical (In-)Security of 64-bit Block Ciphers Collision Attacks on HTTP over TLS and OpenVPN", "Standard Cryptographic Algorithm Naming: Blowfish", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blowfish_(cipher)&oldid=1120053771, Four rounds of Blowfish are susceptible to a second-order, XOR the left half (L) of the data with the, Use the XORed data as input for Blowfish's F-function, XOR the F-function's output with the right half (R) of the data, This page was last edited on 4 November 2022, at 21:29. credits from its Wallet, it can not be charged again. The P-array and S-array need not be recomputed (as long as the key doesn't change), but must remain secret. 3.00. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". Wallet credits are not reset on a daily basis, but they are only spent when a user has not enough Daily Credits. How does it work? Mark's answer is also fairly accurate, smaller keys equals easier cracking time, and with larger keys it is almost impossible to brute-force. Pad the message with a value of your choosing to end on a 64-bit boundary. Process of finding limits for multivariable functions. Blowfish is a block cipher that operates on 64 bit (8 byte) blocks of data. Blowfish can be used in the same modes as DES (see des_modes (7) ). @forest it does though. Can dialogue be put in the same paragraph as action text? Register to post a comment. What about the key? What are Google Cloud Platform (GCP) services? the state of the calculation. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. The initialization vector is added to the file name for convenience. New Home Construction Electrical Schematic. What features do commercial key management solutions have? Find centralized, trusted content and collaborate around the technologies you use most. They are designed to This prevents its use in certain applications, but is not a problem in others. Introduction to Blowfish Blowfish is a keyed, symmetric cryptographic block cipher designed by Bruce Schneier in 1993 and placed in the public domain. Data security techniques have a reputation for being computationally intensive, mysterious, and fraught with intellectual property concerns. Japan. 1 Answer Sorted by: 10 bcrypt is not an encryption function, it's a password hashing function, relying on Blowfish's key scheduling, not its encryption. In the real world, AES has hardware acceleration (AES-NI) that makes it very fast while being immune to cache-timing attacks. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. into the Input text textarea1,2. some credits to spend. What are the benefits of using an HSM? Now let's say that a server wants to send a firmware upgrade to a device and wants to be sure that the code isn't intercepted and modified during transit. We often design systems to download unsigned or unencrypted firmware upgrades or store unencrypted user data, a practice we justify because it's invisible to the end user and makes our lives easier. Now is a good time to start thinking about adding data integrity and privacy capabilities to your embedded system. It does not store any personal data. How do you become compliant with HIPAA? The length of IV is 64 bits mcrypt_encrypt() function in PHP, so for more infos about the parameters used check These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. 253-305-2774 button or the "Decrypt!" (Tenured faculty). "key must be a pair of prime numbers"). It does not store any personal data. The PBKDF2 Password-based Encryption function is one of the key derivation functions I was referring to. P is an array of eighteen 32-bit integers. How do they interact? Or what is the simplest method to encrypt string using blowfish in PHP and decrypt in Lazarus (using DCPCrypt?) Since Blowfish has key-vulnerabilities, it has been replaced with newer versions (Twofish and Threefish). By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. printf(Plaintext message string is: %sn, plaintext_string); /* encrypt the plaintext message string */printf(Encrypted message string is: ); while (plaintext_len) {message_left = message_right = 0UL; /* crack the message string into a 64-bit block (ok, really two 32-bit blocks); pad with zeros if necessary */for (block_len = 0; block_len < 4;="" block_len++)="">{message_left = message_left <>if (plaintext_len) {message_left += *plaintext_string++;plaintext_len;}else message_left += 0;}for (block_len = 0; block_len < 4;="" block_len++)="">{message_right = message_right <>if (plaintext_len) {message_right += *plaintext_string++;plaintext_len;}else message_right += 0;}/* encrypt and print the results */Blowfish_Encrypt(&ctx, &message_left, &message_right);printf(%lx%lx, message_left, message_right); /* save the results for decryption below */*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)(message_left >> 24);*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)(message_left >> 16);*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)(message_left >> 8);*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)message_left;*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)(message_right >> 24);*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)(message_right >> 16);*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)(message_right >> 8);*ciphertext_string++ = (uint8_t)message_right;ciphertext_len += 8;printf(n); /* reverse the process */printf(Decrypted message string is: ); ciphertext_string = &ciphertext_buffer[0];while(ciphertext_len) {message_left = message_right = 0UL; for (block_len = 0; block_len < 4;="" block_len++)="">{message_left = message_left <>message_left += *ciphertext_string++;if (ciphertext_len) ciphertext_len;}for (block_len = 0; block_len < 4;="" block_len++)="">{ message_right = message_right <> message_right += *ciphertext_string++; if (ciphertext_len) ciphertext_len;}. Because Blowfish is a symmetric algorithm, the same procedure is used for decryption as well as encryption. Blowfish is also a block cipher, meaning that it divides a message up into fixed length blocks during encryption and decryption. It's probably not necessary, but nothing is going to break that for the foreseeable future. By clicking Accept all cookies, you agree Stack Exchange can store cookies on your device and disclose information in accordance with our Cookie Policy. I have been astonished to find that password "Test" gives the same encrypted text as password "TestTestTestTest". What are the stages in a certificates lifecycle? message is encrypted separately. symmetric ciphers. Site design / logo 2023 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. Not really sure where to go from here. The best answers are voted up and rise to the top, Not the answer you're looking for? There are five subkey-arrays: one 18-entry P-array (denoted as K in the diagram, to avoid confusion with the Plaintext) and four 256-entry S-boxes (S0, S1, S2 and S3). That's all the information I have. Global Encryption Trends 2023: Insights into data protection strategies, Encryption Technology Implementation Planning. What is Secure Shell (SSH)? Wallet credits are not reset on a daily basis, but they are only spent when a Blowfishis a symmetric-keyblock cipher, designed in 1993 by Bruce Schneierand included in many cipher suites and encryption products. character set to convert the input password into a byte array.The password byte array length But Blowfish can accept 1 byte keys, and 300 byte keys too, so libraries often don't do this an accept the key input 'as is', without KDF being compulsory. Can one efficiently iterate valid bcrypt hash output values? Types of Tokenization: Vault and Vaultless. How to intersect two lines that are not touching, How to turn off zsh save/restore session in Terminal.app. If you can make it clear what it is that you didn't understand, then you can ask either another question here on Stack Overflow if it's code related or if it is really about the inner workings, then you can ask on, >>> msg = msg[:-ord(msg[-1])] Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in msg = msg[:-ord(msg[-1])] TypeError: ord() expected string of length 1, but int found.

Nissan Tow Truck, Bernie Ward Obituary, Articles B